Kenneth Harl - Great Ancient Civilizations of Asia Guidebook 2, ZZZ Guidebooks

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Great Ancient Civilizations of Asia Minor
PART II
Kenneth W. Harl, Ph.D.
Professor of Classical and Byzantine History, Tulane University
Table of Contents
Lecture Thirteen
The Hellenization of Asia Minor
2
Lecture Fourteen
Rome versus the Kings of the East
5
Lecture Fifteen
Prosperity and Roman Patronage
8
Lecture Sixteen
Gods and Sanctuaries of Roman Asia Minor
11
Lecture Seventeen
Jews and Early Christians
14
Lecture Eighteen
From Rome to Byzantium
17
Lecture Nineteen
Constantinople, Queen of Cities
20
Lecture Twenty
The Byzantine Dark Age
23
Lecture Twenty-One
Byzantine Cultural Revival
26
Lecture Twenty-Two
Crusaders and Seljuk Turks
29
Lecture Twenty-Three
Muslim Transformation
31
Lecture Twenty-Four
The Ottoman Empire
34
Glossary
37
Bibliography
40
Lecture Thirteen
The Hellenization of Asia Minor
Scope: Alexander’s conquest accelerated the pace of Hellenization. Macedonian courts of the
Hellenstic age promoted Greek culture. The Attalid kings turned their fortress city
Pergamum into a showcase of Hellenic arts and learning that the Romans admired.
Pergamene artists created a baroque style of sculpture, as seen in the reliefs of the great
altar to Zeus. Attalid palaces provided a model for the Roman villa. Even modest Ioman
cities, such as Priene, became examples for Anatolian communities adopting Greek
institutions. The prosperity of the Hellenistic age enabled civic elites to pour their wealth
into public display and buildings as patriotic acts. Cities acquired theaters (for assemblies
and dramatic festivals), markets
(agora)
complete with council balls
(bouleuterion),
and
temples. The buildings were the settings for Hellemc political life, rituals, and cultural
activities. With this transformation of city life came an awareness that all cities belonged to
a wider Hellenic world that was heir to the political legacy of the
polls.
Outline
I. Macedonian monarchs of the Hellenstic age (323—133 B.c.) posed as defenders of the Hellenic
city
(polls)
and preferred diplomacy to win over cities in their wars against rivals.
A. The Diadochoi and later Ptolemaic and Seleucid kings courted Greek cities, posing as
champions of “freedom of the Greeks” in a bid for material aid and to secure legitimacy as
the heir of Alexander the Great.
1. In Asia Minor, rival kings needed to secure alliances with Greek cities for money, fleets,
and manpower.
2. Macedonian kings fielded expensive professional or mercenary armies and could ill
afford sieges of defiant Greek cities.
3. Macedonian kings comported themselves as benefactors. Arbitrary rule and abuse, as
practiced by Demetrius Poliorcetes, alienated cities, which could turn to rivals.
4. Ptolemaic kings encouraged leagues among cities of southern Asia Minor and in the
Aegean islands. They prevented unification of the Aegean world by either Antigonid or
Seleucid kings.
5.
The Galatians in 279—278 B.C. shattered Seleucid efforts to unite Asia Minor and
permitted Greek cities to negotiate with competing Macedoman monarchs.
C. During these three centuries, cities across Asia Minor steadily assumed a Greek identity,
but the process was hardly uniform, and eastern and northern Asia Minor possessed fewer
Greek cities.
1. Seleucid kings planted military colonies as Greek cities.
2. Kings transformed their capitals into Hdllenic cities. Seleucid kings rebuilt Sardes;
Lysimacbus refounded Ephesus; Attalid kings turned Pergamum from a citadel into
apolis.
3. Dynasts of Anatolia in the second and first centuries B.C. encouraged Hellenic civic life.
4. Anatolian sanctuaries, often with royal support, transformed themselves into
poleis.
B. Cities took measures to secure their autonomy and freedom but could not compete with the
great Macedonian monarchs, whom they hailed as benefactors and “gods manifest.” They
perfected military architecture, constructing massive polygonal walls, as at Assus.
II. The conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great and the wars among his successors
stimulated economic growth, the expansion of trade, and Greek penetration of the Near East.
A. The wars of the great kings created new markets and war industries to supply great armies
and fleets.
B. Alexander the Great and his heirs coined and spent the specie stockpiled by the
Achaemenid kings of Persia. Wars and expenditure monetized markets.
C. Demographic growth and new trade routes stimulated the growth of cities. Macedonian
kings and, after 150 B.C., the dynasts of Anatolia, encouraged economic growth.
1. Improvements in ship building and widespread use of coins primed economic growth
after 330 B.C.
2. Royal capitals at Pella, Antioch, and Alexandria in the fourth century B.C., and lesser
capitals at Pergamum, Nicomedia, and Mazaca in the second century B.C., offered
markets.
3. The ruling classes of Greek cities expressed civic patriotism
(philopatris)
and gained
honor
(philotimia)
by spending on public buildings and social amenities of a
polis.
4. Cities adopted the public buildings of a
polis,
notably theater,
bouleuterion, prytaneion,
and gymnasium.
5.
Sanctuaries were remodeled along Greek lines. From 150 B.C., cities preferred the
monumental Ionic order.
III. Cities of Asia Minor reasserted their roles as cultural innovators of the Hellenic world. Attalid
Pergamum assumed the role in visual arts played by Miletus in the Archaic Age and Athens in
the Classical Age.
A. Cities of Asia Minor were remodeled along Greek lines. Priene offered a model for other
cities.
1. Priene, a modest Ionian city, was refounded in the later fourth century B.C. along
Hippodamian lines, with a grid pattern, distinct residential and public districts
(agora),
and use of terracing.
2. The temple of Athena, rebuilt by the emperor Hadrian (117—138), was in the
monumental Ionic style.
3. Fortifications were built of formidable polygonal masonry.
B. Attalid kings patronized celebrated shrines and cities and turned their citadel into a
showcase of Hellenic arts that influenced Roman imperial art
1. Kings Attalus I and Eume~es II transformed the citadel of Pergamum into a royal city.
Attalid residences provided a model for the opulent Roman villas at Pompeii.
2. The Temple of Athena was rebuilt and the sanctuary was surrounded with baroque
sculpture depicting Attalid victories over the Galatians.
3. Pergamene sculptors created a baroque style, evoking the pathos and mood of the
subject, and set new standards in portraiture.
4. The Great Altar, commissioned by Eumenes II, combined an Anatolian altar with
traditional frieze sculpture depicting mythological combats.
5.
The royal library of Pergamene attracted savants and poets favoring the florid Asianic
style.
C. The visual and literary arts of Hellenistic Asia Minor influenced Rome from 200 B.C. on
and thus influenced the arts of Western civilization.
1. The Great Altar of Zeus inspired the Ara Pacis of Augustus at Rome.
2. Royal monumental tombs, such as the Belevi near Ephesus, influenced mausoleums of
Roman emperors.
3. Baroque frieze and free-standing sculpture contributed techniques, iconography, and
styles to their Roman imperial counterparts.
4. Painting, domestic furniture, textiles, and decorative arts were transmitted to the great
families of Rome.
1. Anatolian elites took up residence in Hellenized cities and directed social and economic
changes across the peninsula.
2. Henceforth, Asia Minor was an increasingly Hellenized land, until the arrival of the
Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century.
Readings:
Hansen, E. V.
The Attalids of Pergamon.
2”” ed. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971.
Jones, A. H. M.
The Greek City from Alexander to Justinian.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979.
Pollitt, J. J.
Art in the Hellenistic Age.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Wycherley, R. E.
How the Greeks Built Their Cities.
New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1962.
Questions to Consider:
1. Why did the wars among the great kings of the Hellenistic world stimulate economic growth in
Asia Minor?
2. Why were the Attalid kings of Perganiuni such important patrons of Hellenic arts? How did the
arts of Pergamum influence subsequent Roman art?
D. In the Hellcnistic age, Greek public culture emerged as dominant in Asia Minor, but it was
altered by existing traditions.
Lecture Fourteen
Rome versus the Kings of the East
Scope: For all their philhellemsm, Macedonian monarchs were hated by Greeks as the antithesis of
the
polis.
Greeks twice invited the Romans to crush the Antigonid monarchs of Macedon;
Asian Greeks, too, hailed the legions as liberators against Seleucid King Antiochus III
(223—187 B.C.). Greeks, however, gained a far more jealous mistress in Rome. Roman
armies ruthlessly looted Greek cities. In 133 B.C., when western Anatolia, the province of
Asia, passed to Rome, Italian tax farmers so exploited the land that Asian Greeks welcomed
Mithridates VI (120—63 B.C.), king of Pontus, as their liberator. Although the legions
smashed the Pontic armies, Rome was compelled to devise fair government. Pompey put the
cities and their propertied elites in charge of administration, creating the Roman provincial
system. So successful were Pompey’s reforms that cities of Asia Minor paid for the civil
wars (48—31 B.C.) that destroyed the Roman Republic and made Octavian, the future
Emperor Augustus, master of the Roman world. The cities of Anatolia entered their
greatest era of prosperity.
Outline
I. In 200-167 B.C., Rome smashed the great Macedoman monarchies and imposed her hegemony
over the Hellenistic world. Cities, leagues, and petty kingdoms of Anatolia were destined to pass
under new world conquerors who were not warrior-kings, as Cyrus or Alexander the Great,
but citizen legions commanded by elected magistrates of Rome (consuls) who often had their
powers extended as proconsuls.
A. Rome faced west and north, rather than east toward the Greek world. She battled the
Gauls, traditional foes, in northern Italy, and the competing republic of Carthage for
mastery of the western Mediterranean.
1. Roman martial skills and ethos conditioned the republic to expand. Wars with Carthage
taught Rome naval warfare, finances, and overseas administration.
2. Rome drew on citizens and allies of Italy, over 1 million men for the legions,
outstripping any contemporary rival.
3. Romans perfected flexible legionary tactics based on the sword, as well as logistics and
siege train, enabling them to storm cities with ruthless efficiency.
4. In political institutions, Rome was still a city-state governed by elected magistrates and
an advisory Senate, subject to the Roman people in assembly. In practice, the
nobiles
dominated the Senate and elected offices and, thus, foreign policy.
1. In 200-197 B.C., Rome waged war on Philip V of Macedon at the instigation of Greek
cities that hated the Macedonian overlord and to settle scores with Philip V. who had
allied with Hannibal.
2. At Cynocephalae (197 B.C.), Rome humbled Philip V. then declared “freedom of the
Greeks” and withdrew.
3, Based on appeals from Greek cities of Asia and King Attalus II, Rome fought King
Antiochus Ill, who threatened to impose Seleucid rule over Asia Minor.
4. At Magnesia sub Sipylum (190 B.C.), Lucius Cornelius Scipio decisively defeated
Antiochus Ill and proved the superiority of the legion over the phalanx.
B. In 200 B.C., Antiochus Ill, after decisively defeating his Ptolemaic foe at Panium, was on the
verge of imposing Seleucid rule over Anatolia. Yet ten years later, all Macedonian kings had
fallen before the power of Rome, mistress of the Mediterranean world for the next 700
years.
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